Metamorphic Bibliography

Human Animals

2010-01-29T07:37:00.000-08:00

Hamel, Frank. Human Animals. London: William Rider & Son, 1915. (using a Kessinger Publishing reprint, no publishing year noted)

Hamel covers a variety of sources and wide range of shape-shifters from werewolves to tiger-men, lion-men, werefoxes, werevixens, human serpents, and bird women. He also touches on witches, familiars, "fabulous animals and monsters", "cat and cock phantoms", "animal ghosts", and "animal spirits in ceremonial magic" among other things. As with many related works and authors from his era, Hamel draws together diverse sources from around the world to catalog and explore the subject, making his work an excellent starting point for further research, including terminology. On the other hand, he does have a colonial bias fairly common in his day, using such phrases as "savage races" with abandon.

The book does do a good job with a historical perspective on shape-shifting, including references to Frazer (the Golden Bough), Gerald of Wales, the Grimm brothers, and other well known writers on the subject. The third chapter presents a good example of Hamel's wide-ranging sources: the Bhagavad Gita, Ojibwa and Osage folklore, New Guinea folklore, the Masai of Uganda, Australian aborigines, Eskimos, Aztecs, Yakuts of Siberia, Samoyeds, and Melanesian legend are all factored into his discussion. In many ways, Hamel's work reads like Joseph Campbell's The Hero with a Thousand Faces or some of Carl Jung's work with archetypes, which may be a hallmark of Jung and Hamel's era and fields.

Reading Harry Potter: Critical Essays

2009-10-28T06:15:00.000-07:00

Anatol, Giselle Liza ed. Reading Harry Potter: Critical Essays. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003.

One important point to keep in mind with this anthology of criticism is that only books one through four of the seven book series existed when it was written. Therefore, the essays are necessarily limited in their scope and available information. The following essays touch on Rowling's shape-shifters to some degree (usually tangentially):

Mills, Alice. "Archetypes and the Unconscious in Harry Potter and Diana Wynne Jones's Fire and Hemlock and Dogbody." 3-13.

A couple brief paragraphs about Sirius Black, Peter Pettigrew, and James Potter as well as minor mention of Remus Lupin. Mills focuses on Black and limits her reading to how shape-shifting fits within Jung's trickster archetype.

Lavoie, Chantel. "Safe as Houses: Sorting and School Houses at Hogwarts." 35-49.

Briefly mentions Remus Lupin, primarily as someone whose courage in living with an illness inspires others and grants him a place in Gryffindor.

Ostry, Elaine. "Accepting Mudbloods: The Ambivalent Social Vision of J. K. Rowling’s Fairy Tales." 89-101.

Briefly notes werewolves as a sign of racial intolerance within wizarding society. Points out Ron as a source of the prejudiced views, and incorrectly claims a lack of self-control on Lupin's part. Ostry also includes an extremely brief mention of the animagi, but makes no effort to interpret their place except to say that "transformation of physical form" is common to fairy tales (90).

Hall, Susan. "Harry Potter and the Rule of Law: The Central Weakness of Legal Concepts in the Wizard World." 147-162.

Very briefly (two sentences) mentions the legal problems inherent in a society that includes animagi and other means of transformation such as the Polyjuice Potion.

Anatol, Giselle Liza. "The Fallen Empire: Exploring Ethnic Otherness in the World of Harry Potter." 163-178.

Briefly mentions Lupin and werewolves in a footnote (fn 56, pg. 178) to introduce the race versus illness dialogue that occurs in interpreting Rowling's werewolves. However, Anatol ultimately rejects the racial reading in favor of the disease reading, even though this ignores 50-60% of the textual evidence.

The Literary Werewolf

2009-10-27T19:01:00.000-07:00

Otten, Charlotte ed. The Literary Werewolf: An Anthology. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse UP, 2002.

Rather than the method I employed with Harlan Ellison's anthology of werewolf literature previously, in Otten's case I am going to list the pieces she includes and discuss the work as a whole. This change in tactics is the result of the sheer variety of work Otten collects for this anthology. So, included in The Literary Werewolf are:

Banister, Manly. "Eena" (1947).
Biss, Gerald. "The Door of the Unreal" (1920).
Blackwood, Algernon. "Running Wolf" (1949).
De France, Marie. "The Lay of the Were-Wolf" - an alright prose translation (12th c. original, 1911 translation).
De Maupassant, Guy. "The Wolf" (n.d., pre-1893).
Derleth, August W. & Mark Schorer. "The Woman at Loon Point" (1936).
Elliott, Bruce. "Wolves Don't Cry" (1954).
Field, Eugene. "The Werewolf" (1911, posthumous).
Fleming, Peter. "The Kill" (1942).
Housman, Clemence. "The Were-Wolf" (1896).
Jacobs, Joseph. "The Story of Rough Niall of the Speckled Rock" (n.d., pre-1916).
King, Stephen. "February, Cycle of the Werewolf" - excerpt from a larger work (Cycle of the Werewolf (1985).
Kipling, Rudyard. "The Mark of the Beast" (1890).
Leiber, Fritz. "The Hound" (1942).
Ovid. "Lycaeon's Punishment" - excerpt from Metamorphoses (1st c. B.C.E. original, 2002 prose translation).
Quinn, Seabury. "The Thing in the Fog" (1933).
---. "The Phantom Farmhouse" (1923).
Saki. "Gabriel-Ernest" (1930, posthumous).
---. "The She-Wolf" (1914).
Spariosu, Mihai I. & Dezso Benedek. "The Bitang" (1994).
Stableford, Brian. "The Werewolves of London" - excerpt from a book of the same name (1990).
Yolen, Jane. "Green Messiah" (1988).

As can be seen from the list, Otten draws from a wide range of authors and produces a fairly representative sample of late-19th to late-20th century stories. Her representation of earlier periods is a bit sparse, but is made up in her other book (see previous post: A Lycanthropy Reader). Rather than organizing the book chronologically or by author, Otten chooses to sort the stories by what she considers to be the major theme as follows:

Erotic Werewolf (King, Banister, Housman) - Otten defines this as the female seductress, the male predator
Rapacious Werewolf (Maupassant, Saki "Gabriel-Ernest") - werewolves who live to kill
Diabolical Werewolf (Quinn "The Thing", Stableford, Biss) - some sort of diabolic origin for the werewolf (drawing upon medieval Christian views)
Supernatural Werewolf (Kipling, Leiber) - werewolfism involving the intervention of some force beyond the natural (Otten suggests divine intervention)
Victimized Werewolf (Derleth/Schorer, Field) - werewolf as victim of illness
Avenging Werewolf (Fleming, Marie de France, Jacobs) - a werewolf who takes justice into his own hands
Guilty Werewolf (Ovid, Spariosu/Benedek) - the werewolf who hides his nature behind the mask of a human face
Unabsolved Werewolf (Quinn "Phantom", Blackwood) - a werewolf whose spiritual needs have not been met by "proper burial" (229); for some reason Otten equates absolution with a proper Christian burial
Voluntary Werewolf (Saki "She-Wolf", Yolen, Elliott) - those who "find peace in being a werewolf" (269).

Clearly these categories have some fluidity to them - Marie's Bisclavret could just as easily be a Voluntary Werewolf or Victimized Werewolf as an Avenging Werewolf. Some of the definitions (such as the Unabsolved Werewolf) are problematic as well. And one sees some problems with the differentiation between the Diabolical Werewolf and the Supernatural Werewolf, as both involve "supernatural" agency.

However, despite its flaws, Otten's anthology does provide a good starting point for werewolf research. And it provides reprinting of some stories that might otherwise be lost in moldering copies of Weird Tales or The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction from the early-20th century.

Discworld

2009-10-25T05:39:00.000-07:00

Pratchett, Terry. Feet of Clay. New York: Harper Prism, 1997.
---. The Fifth Elephant. New York: Harper, 2001.
---. Jingo. New York: HarperPrism, 1999.
---. Maskerade. New York: HarperPrism, 1995.
---. Men at Arms. New York: Harper, 1997.
---. The Truth. New York: Harper Torch, 2001.
---. Thud! New York: HarperCollins, 2005.

Terry Pratchett's shape-shifters cover a wide range of books but basically come down to two beings: vampires and werewolves. Technically, the Librarian could be included, but because that was a one-way transformation, I exclude it (even if magic could be used to change him back to human). To some extent the witches' Borrowing may fall under a broad definition of shape-shifting as psychic shape-changing, but because it involves the witch's consciousness riding, but not overtaking, an animal's, I'm excluding it as well.

The above list is unfortunately not completely inclusive, as Pratchett has vampires and werewolves in many of his books. However, the seven in the list are the ones in which such beings play a major role, rather than minor background roles.

Pratchett's vampires fit many of the stock traits: vulnerability to sunlight (can be ignored with full coverage clothes and broad brimmed hats), blood drinking (although this is really a thirst for power and can be beaten with willpower), and shape-shifting (into a group of bats). The last power is different depending on gender--males retain their clothing upon becoming human again, females do not. Sally explains this in Thud!. Pratchett's two most common vampires are Otto von Chriek (The Truth) and Constable Sally (Thud!), although others appear for brief times, especially in The Fifth Elephant.

His werewolves are very aware of their dual nature, with Sergeant Angua being the most introspective of all. Through The Fifth Elephant and Thud!, she describes the werewolf experience in both general terms and in relation to vampires. Werewolf shifting here only includes two forms (human and wolf), does not allow for retention of clothing, does include regeneration and silver vulnerability, and unsettles the domestication of canines. On the last point, Pratchett constantly refers to the thin line between wolf and dog, both in character thoughts and Sgt. Angua's behavior. There are other werewolves in the books, but I have focused on Angua here because she is the only recurring werewolf and the one from whom readers get the most information.

The novel Masquerade does introduce some Elf shape-shifting through glamour, but this is more or less limited to the one novel. This form of shape-shifting appears to be more illusory that real change in that it can be disbelieved and seen through by the strong-willed (such as Granny Weatherwax).

Harry Potter

2009-09-16T05:56:00.000-07:00

Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter series. New York: Scholastic, 1998-2007.

Dealing with a series in this format is always difficult, but I have decided to treat the entire series as one entity. The series contains a complex interaction of several forms of shape-shifting, each of which has specific rules and limitations. Because of the breadth of styles, I will cover them in order of appearance.

The first method of shape-shifting presented comes from Transfiguration spells. These can presumably turn people temporarily into animals (Sorcerer's Stone, Hagrid attempts to turn Dudley into a pig), change features (throughout the series), and even into inanimate objects (Deathly Hallows, Slughorn turns himself into a chair). Some such transformations require extra spells to remove them, others apparently wear off over time or when the wizard/witch wishes.

Sorcerer's Stone also introduces animagi. This form of shape-changing allows a person to turn into one animal form, based on the animagus' personality. The change can occur at will and can last as long as the animagus wishes. The first introduced animagus is Minerva McGonagall (Sorcerer's) followed by James Potter, Sirius Black, and Peter Pettigrew (Prisoner of Azkaban), and Rita Skeeter (Goblet of Fire). Only McGonagall is the only one of the five who is legally an animagus, as the other four were never registered.

Following these two methods comes alchemical means of shape-shifting, the Polyjuice Potion (Chamber of Secrets). The potion is limited in that is can only be used to assume human shapes and only lasts for an hour at a time. Human-animal transformations effected by the potion require fairly lengthy hospitalization to reverse.

Lycanthropy is introduced in Prisoner of Azkaban as an uncontrolled human-wolf transformation that draws almost equally from traditional and modern sources. In the former case, the transformation is human to wolf only (no hybrid form in the books, although the movies have it as human to semi-hybrid), no regeneration, and several other elements. From the modern, Rowling draws upon moon-based change and lycanthropy as communicable disease.

Goblet of Fire introduces some non-human/non-wizard shape-shifting in the form of the Veela, but this is not really developed at all, nor does it play a major part in the series.

The last form of transformation present is the metamorphmagus. This is the only form of shape-shifting that Rowling presents as a completely natural, genetic, talent. The form is limited in that the individual can only assume human shapes, however (s)he can do so at will as often as (s)he likes. Half-Blood Prince suggests that the ability can be affected by the metamorphmagus' emotional state, as Nymphadora Tonks loses some of her ability during the months of depression following Lupin's initial rejection of her romantic overtures and Sirius Black's death.

The Ultimate Werewolf

2009-09-05T05:03:00.000-07:00

Ellison, Harlan ed. The Ultimate Werewolf: New Stories by Some of the World's Leading Authors. New York: Dell Publishing, 1991.

I've avoided including the anthologies to date because of not being certain how I want to handle them, but I think this format will work.

As an anthology, Ellison's work is filled with numerous interesting stories. For the purposes of this blog, I'll list summaries rather than attempting interpretation at this point. Most are set in the modern world with a few looking back to the 18th or 19th centuries and a couple science fiction pieces.

Ellison, Harlan. "Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans . . .": Follows Lawrence Talbot is his quest to eventually die.

Farmer, Philip Jose. "Wolf, Iron, and Moth.": Follows Doctor Varglik, a man-eating werewolf who uses a Scandinavian wolf-pelt to change shapes. Includes publications of the "Werewolf Association of the World" filled with Cosmo-style surveys as well as personals ads. Also involves the death of a werewolf and creation of another.

Koja, Kathe. "Angels' Moon.": A new werewolf deals with his transformation, believing himself (at first) to be an angel. Makes a connection to leprosy that has ancient and medieval roots.

Hoffman, Nina Kiriki. "Unleashed.": Interesting piece in which a young mother turns into a man on a lunar cycle (three nights a month) and leaves her baby in the care of a werewolf (also on a lunar change cycle).

Antieau, Kim. "The Mark of the Beast.": A first person, 19th century set, story involving gypsy curses and lycanthropy. Includes the tradition of the werewolf bearing the wounds of one form in the other as well as the idea of changing to one's true form in death.

Charyn, Jerome. "At War with the Wolf Man.": A psychotic "Wolf Man" uses the subways to terrorize Manhattan. Takes the psychological approach for the most part, along with the serial killer route.

Gardner, Craig Shaw. "Day of the Wolf.": A sort of "Typhoid Mary" werewolf passes on lycanthropy by touch, but appears to be immune himself (the immunity is apparently passed on via sex).

Gilden, Mel. "Moonlight on the Gazebo.": Story involving a witch and a werewolf (the latter being used by a town for the execution of criminals). Lycanthropy is passed in this story via bites and is subject to moon based transformation.

Collins, Nancy A. "Raymond.": Early-20th century set story with a werewolf showing all the "traditional" physical signs from an elongated ring finger to scaring animals. Includes early-20th century psychiatric methods (surgery) to "cure" lycanthropy. Child werewolf taken in by Colonel Reynard (fox-were).

Niven, Larry. "There's a Wolf in My Time Machine.": Post-apocalyptic tale involving time-travel to recover extinct species from horses/unicorns to dogs. Accidentally transported to a parallel dimension in which werewolves evolved to control the world rather than homo habilis.

Murphy, Pat. "South of Oregon City.": Frontier era tale of a settler (male) marrying a werewolf (female) and their children (near the end).

Anderson, Kevin J. "Special Makeup.": B-movie actor becomes cursed by a Gypsy make-up artist and becomes a werewolf, thus limiting him to character acting parts in other B-movies, such as Werewolf in Casablanca. Interesting take on the idea.

Crispin, A.C. & Kathleen O'Malley. "Pure Silver.": A Jewish werewolf in modern New York City hunts escaped Nazi officers and concentration camp guards. Eventually "caught" by an SPCA officer and passes the gift/curse on to her. In an interesting mix of beliefs, there is a chance that her Navajo partner may be able to "cure" her. Lunar based transformation and silver vulnerability are both featured in this piece.

Linaweaver, Brad. "Close Shave.": Story told from the perspective of a pre-20th century barber/dentist/surgeon to supernatural beings. Very much a parody in form, with sarcasm throughout and none of the traditional lycanthropy remedies working. Also includes an old Gypsy curse and an Abbot & Costello ending.

Randisi, Robert J. "Partners.": Entertaining piece about a werewolf police officer in New York City (a particular favorite of the authors in this anthology). Moon-caused transformation is featured as well as a need for secrecy.

Pronzini, Bill. "Ancient Evil.": Somewhat similar to Williamson's Darker Than You Think, werewolves here represent an . . . "ancient evil" hunted by ranchers. This werewolf leaves behind a book exposing lycanthropes.

Strickland, Brad. "And the Moon Shines Full and Bright.": The world's last werewolf is captured for study in the far future. Moon forced change and silver vulnerability are explained with pseudo-science (or future science) before sending the werewolf to Venus ("because it has no moon" and therefore no transformation).

Kaminsky, Stuart. "Full Moon Over Moscow.": Soviet-era tale of a famous performer/werewolf and an elevator operator who has premonitions. Romania features as the source of the lycanthropy. Moon-based change and excessive longevity are featured here.

Weinberg, Robert E. "Wolf Watch.": A werewolf night watchman foils an attempted robbery in a department store. Presents an internal discussion of the differences between vampires and werewolves as robbers try vampiric weaknesses to defeat the werewolf.

Silverberg, Robert. "The Werewolf Gambit.": Guy uses the "werewolf gambit" to pick up women, only to inadvertently pick up a real werewolf (and gets eaten by her).

Wolf, Leonard. "Selected Filmography.": Good representative list starting in 1935 and ending in 1981.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

2009-08-29T06:46:00.001-07:00

Anon. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight / Pearl / Sir Orfeo. Trans. J.R.R. Tolkien. New York: Ballantine, 1980.

Anon. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. 9th ed. Eds. J.R.R. Tolkien & E.V. Gordon. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1963.

This romance contains a questionable piece of shape-shifting as Morgan/Morgaine changes the Green Knight's appearance, into the green knight. She also uses her magic to change the appearance of the knight's wife and to make him appear to have been beheaded by Gawain (at the beginning). On one hand, this could be actual transformation, on the other it could be illusion. Because the period sources often treated the latter as equal in some ways to the former (see Augustine below), I've decided to include this piece.

(The first citation is for the best modern translation I know of; the second is for the best/only edition I know of in the original Middle English.)

Witches & Neighbors

2009-08-26T04:00:00.000-07:00

Briggs, Robin. Witches & Neighbors: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft. New York: Penguin, 1998.

In his major study of European witchcraft, Briggs identifies English devils and witches said to transform into cats and dogs there and on the Continent. He also points to said capability of witches to turn into cats and hares as a potential means of charting the confluence of witches and werewolves. Here, he cites Boguet and states that occasionally "werewolf" was often used to explain unusual, or perceived unusual, behavior in wolves. Briggs' longest discussion of shape-shifting covers the act's role as a holdover from ancient shamanistic beliefs including greases, incantations, and special skins. Added to rare stories of witches turning into wolves are more numerous tales of witches becoming cats or dogs (although in Lorraine this form was reserved for the Devil himself). The sexualized interpretation is important here, since these cats more often than not were spotted in locked bedrooms, usually when the household was asleep (with the witness waking to see the cat-witch).

Monsters: Evil Beings, Mythical Beasts, . . .

2009-08-25T04:44:00.000-07:00

Gilmore, David. Monsters: Evil Beings, Mythical Beasts, and All Manner of Imaginary Terrors. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003.

Gilmore only briefly discusses shape-shifting, first in a note regarding Lycaon, whom he erroneously refers to as "the first werewolf" (40). He also quickly mentions Bacil Kirtley's work on Polynesian monster lore, including weresharks, wereswordfish, wereeels, werecrabs, werereptiles, and werelizards. The first in the list being much more common, Gilmore says, in Hawaii, Java, Tonga, and the Fiji islands.

The Werewolf Book

2009-08-24T10:01:00.000-07:00

Steiger, Brad. The Werewolf Book: The Encyclopedia of Shape-Shifting Beings. Detroit: Visible Ink, 1999.

Steiger takes a very broad definition of "werewolf" as his title indicates. The encyclopedia is just that, and shares the limitations of all encyclopedias. That is, Steiger covers the subject in broad stokes to create a starting point, but provides few details. He does include much of the history as well as the modern sources, including Bodin, Boguet, Petronius, Jean Grenier, and Gerald of Wales. However, he also misses many of the major names such as Marie de France, Ovid, and William of Palerne (which causes problems for the foreward's claim regarding "Brad's meticulous scholarship and unrelenting thoroughness").

Instead, Steiger provides information on the Abominable Snowman, Anubis, Elizabeth Bathory (vampirism, not werewolfism), the Marquis de Sade, gargoyles, gypsies, Jack the Ripper, zombies, and necrophilia, among other oddities that don't quite seem to fit within the stated purpose of the text. The choice of inclusion of these items seems especially odd when Steiger ignores Ovid, Marie, Charlotte Otten's work, Gervase of Tilbury, and numerous other texts and/or creatures. Most of his longest entries are also devoted to early-20th century movies, rather than the other sources. Another problem is that often the photos and pictures in the text don't match the text - ex. a man holding a bag containing "Bigfoot" hair is placed in the entry discussing the "Tortures of the Inquisition" (285) while another depicting a German werewolf (16th c.) is attached to the entry on "Tiger People."

On the plus side, he does include brief information on badger people, bear people, beaver people, cat people, coyote people, hyena people, jackal people, leopard men, lion men, nagas, rusalki, selkies, serpent people, and tiger people. And most of his sources seem to be pretty good (even though he often cites his own work). He also provides a decent chronology for shape-shifting/werewolves, although Adam Douglas' (see previous blog entry) is better.

Unfortunately, Steiger's foreward is written by Dr. Franklin Ruehl, PhD (a supposed expert on paranormal topics), whose PhD is actually in nuclear physics rather than something actually related to history, folklore, lit, or other fields connected to the subject. Steiger's credibility is further undermined by being a regular on Art Bell's radio show.

The Satyricon

2009-08-19T16:48:00.000-07:00

Petronius. The Satyricon. Trans. J.P. Sullivan. New York: Penguin Classics, 1979.

The important part of this tale starts on page 72 of this edition (61). Niceros, a guest of Trimalchio, states that his master had gone to Capua, so he took a guest to walk with him as he visited a widow he hoped to marry. This unnamed soldier, about one in the morning as they passed a graveyard, "stripped off and laid all his clothes by the side of the road [. . .] he pissed a ring round his clothes and suddenly turned into a wolf [. . .] after he turned into a wolf, he started howling and rushed off into the woods" (73). Apparently the widow's livestock were attacked and a slave put a spear through the wolf's neck. Niceros returned home to find a doctor treating the soldier-guest's neck and refuses to ever eat in the werewolf's company again.

Magic in the Middle Ages

2009-07-27T04:00:00.000-07:00

Kieckhefer, Richard. Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995.

Kieckhefer only briefly touches on metamorphosis, but the points where he does are notable. Initially, he discusses the medieval reception of Apuleius' The Golden Ass, noting that the text was cited as another authoritative source regarding the reality of shape-shifting. His second major discussion is mixed with the moral role of shape-shifting and magic in medieval romances, especially the Arthurian romances in which Gawain and company occasionally resort to both. Finally, Kieckhefer briefly discusses 15th century witchcraft based shape-shifting via items given to witches by Satan.

Darker Than You Think

2009-07-11T05:56:00.000-07:00

Williamson, Jack. Darker Than You Think. New York: Berkley, 1969. (Original ed. 1948)

Williamson employs pseudo-science and mysticism to create this dark fantasy novel. His shape-shifters appear to be more psychic projection than physiologically changing entities. Adapting the theory of evolution, Williamson posits shape-shifting as an evolutionary capability developed by a branch of humanity during the Ice Age. His lead shape-shifter, April Bell, claims that during that period different groups of humans adapted in different ways to survive. Some, she says, developed the ability to project themselves into (many) animal forms in order to hunt. Williamson's pseudo-science comes into play against when he explains that something about silver's elemental properties (whether its specific atomic weight or arrangement of molecules) is harmful to the shape-changers regardless of whether they are projecting or not. Apparently the quantity of animal forms depends on the purity of bloodline reaching back to the ancients, with a completely pure bloodline resulting in theoretically unlimited ability.

Cycle of Fire

2009-07-05T06:04:00.000-07:00

Clement, Hal. Cycle of Fire. New York: Ballantine Books, 1981. (Original ed. 1957)

Clement's Cycle of Fire is a sci-fi novel that dominantly features shape-shifting. The world in question undergoes a major environmental shift in which all of the lifeforms, including the sentients, literally melt and are reborn into a new form adapted to the changed environment (cool to super hot and vice versa). This occurs on a regular cycle based on the planet's orbit around its sun (thus the title). Otherwise, the book is a sci-fi take on Robinson Crusoe.

An Italian Werewolf in London

2009-06-24T12:14:00.000-07:00

Hirsh, Brett D. "An Italian Werewolf in London: Lycanthropy and The Duchess of Malfi." EMLS 11.2 (Sept. 2005), np.
online: extra.shu.ac.uk/emls/11-2/hirswere.htm

Hirsh explores John Webster's reasons for writing about a werewolf on the English stage in an era when there were no cases of werewolf trials in the country, despite a large number on the Continent. In the process, he looks to Charlotte Otten, Ovid, Plato, Pythagoras, Guillaume Postel, and Giordano Bruno. Hirsh does entertain the religious perspective, noting the presence of shape-changing in the Bible, as well as the Church's Augustinian dismissal of shape-shifting. Moreover, he argues that "demonology picked up where theology left off, tackling the logistics of illusory change" (para 5). He does note the English versus Continental views (lycanthropy as mental disease versus as actual transformation respectively), through Boguet, Scot, Henry Holland (1590), George Gifford (1593), and King James VI of Scotland (1597) as well as Deacon and Walker.

Of importance is Hirsh's claim that "English demonologists could afford to be more sceptical towards the accounts of werewolves from their neighbours on the COntinent, since the chances of being attacked by a supernatural wolf, let alone a natural specimen, on English soil were negligible" due to centuries of hunting (para. 11).

Ultimately, Hirsh ties the werewolf in Webster's play to questions of moral responsibility (which it held for centuries and still holds), questions of the Reformation, issues of sexual identity, and issues of ethnicity.

An Historical Study of the Werwolf in Literature

2009-06-21T07:15:00.000-07:00

Smith, Kirby F. "An Historical Study of the Werwolf in Literature." PMLA 9.1 (1894), 1-42.

Kirby's rather early PMLA essay notes that the idea of metamorphosis is one of the oldest, most widespread, and vital beliefs in human history. Likewise, he notes that the wolf is one of the most widespread animals in the world. Thus, werewolves. Kirby's approach is that of the folklorist, chronicling a variety of sources and attempting to create solid definitions. He essentially divides werewolves into categories: involuntary and voluntary, stating that the first is more pitiable and sympathetic; as well as constitutional (natural ability) and what I might call mechanical werewolves. He relates tales from Pliny, Petronius, Marie de France, Ovid, the Volsunga Saga, and others. Most of these tales are related in a condensed, paraphrased form rather than simply being referred to. This accounts for much of the article's length. An interesting note occurs when Kirby relates Gerald of Wales' werewolf tale. He states that the Anglo-Irish story refers to Abbot Natalis (a local saint) as the perpetrator of the curse while a Danish tale is identical is all ways, saves only that Saint Patrick is named as the perpetrator.

For modern audiences, Kirby is interesting partially because he also includes some very old precedent for werewolf-vampire animosity. Here, he relates folklore from Russia, Prussia, Wallachia, and Germany. He also covers the Church position on werewolves built upon Augustine quite well.

The Toleration and Eroticization of Rape

2009-05-30T08:07:00.000-07:00

Johnson, Sharon P. "The Toleration and Eroticization of Rape: Interpreting Charles Perrault's 'Le Petit Chaperon Rouge' within Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century French Jurisprudence." Women's Studies 32 (2003). 325-352.

Johnson applies French legal history to Perrault's tale with the added dimension of representations of gender in both. She claims that the tale actually teaches that crimes have no consequence for the perpetrator, but rather that the victim is at fault. She further states that the wolf "is the only character that is represented as an animal; his ravenous appetite and violent ways are not repudiated" (330). Nor is his double murder condemned. However, this complaint ignores the fact that the wolf is indeed an animal, is a guardian of social convention, and is simply doing its job. Moreover, the wolf cannot be tried for its "crimes" because as an animal (in the pre-20th century period) it lacks reason, logic, and intent (beyond hunger) and therefore has committed no crime.

Unfortunately, Johnson also displays a lack of understanding of the classical and medieval meaning of the term "raptus" (rape) in her brief discussion of the Sabine women and Persephone (the Latin term can simply mean abduction, and even in context it can be difficult to tell whether abduction or forced sex is meant).

Johnson later claims that, although current interpretations of the tale connect it to wolves and werewolves, this does not "adequately account for the sexualized dimension of Perrault's tale" (342). This shows a lack of knowledge regarding folklore surrounding wolves and the use of werewolves throughout history, in which both have constantly been connected to sexuality.

Dialogicall Discourses of Spirits and Divels

2009-05-22T17:42:00.000-07:00

Deacon, John & John Walker. Dialogicall Discourses of Spirits and Divels. London, 1601.

Deacon and Walker set up their book in the form of a series of discussions between essentially archetypal persons. For shape-shifters, the fifth dialogue is the important one. In this discussion, Physiologus, Orthodoxus, and Philologus attempt to discuss shape-shifting and lycanthropy with Lycanthropus. They are very briefly aided by Pneumatomachus and Exorcistes. The trio essentially argues illusionary transformation and devilish trickery from a decidedly Augustinian position. Lycanthropus does his best to defend his belief that he actually turns into a wolf, but is ultimately shown the error of his ways on both psychological and theological grounds. Philologus has one of the more interesting arguments, not because of its strength but because of its direction. Near the end of the dialogue, he states, "Lycanthropus, your opinion (it appeareth) is plainely condemned of all: and therefore, forsake it for shame" (162). This statement seems to be the argument that breaks Lycanthropus' position and causes him to surrender and repent.

Diseases of the Mind

2009-05-19T04:37:00.000-07:00

Burton, Robert. Diseases of the Mind London, 1621.

Burton's Diseases presents one of the more complete descriptions of lycanthropia (lycanthropy) as mental illness in the early modern corpus of werewolf and mental illness works. He says the illness is also known as lupinam insaniam or wolf-madness and says sufferers "will no be perswaded but that they are Wolves, or some such beasts" (6). He does reference Avicenna, Ovid, Augustine, Paulus, Pliny, Olaus Magnus, Spranger, and several others in a single column discussion. As with most scientific depictions of lycanthropy in the ear, Burton attributes the illness to a "kind of Melancholy" but says that he "should rather refer it to Madness" (6).

A General Collection of Discourses

2009-05-16T05:45:00.000-07:00

Havers, G. A General Collection of Discourses of the Virtuosi of France, Upon Questions of all Sorts of Philosophy, and Other Natural Knowledge. London, 1664.

Conference 34 in the General Collection directly discusses lycanthropy. Oddly, it also discusses "Of the way to acquire Nobility." This linkage of ideas hearkens back to medieval werewolf tales, such as those of Bisclavret, Alphouns, Gorlagon, and the Ossory werewolves, in that those werewolves were all nobles and displayed their nobility through actions (for the most part). The document references Augustine, the Bible, Homer, Ovid, Aristotle, and others.

Liek Simon Goulart's, Havers' pamphlet occupies a border place between the medieval and the early modern, between the continental and the English. On one hand, the "virtuosi" lend weight to devilish transformation as illusion. On the other, they refer to rabies, overactive imaginations, and melancholy as the causes of lycanthropy (mental illness). And they suggest that lycanthropy could be mental illness with a possible devilish cause. Interestingly, the "virtuosi" even bring hard science to bear on the question, suggesting a predecessor to the law of conservation of mass (204).

A True Discourse . . . Stubbe Peeter

2009-05-12T04:54:00.000-07:00

A True Discourse. Declaring the Damnable Life and Death of One Stubbe Peeter, a Most Wicked Sorcerer, Who in the Likenes of a Woolfe, Committed Many Murders, Continuing This Divelish Practice 25 Yeeres, Killing and Devouring Men, Woomen, and Children. London, 1590.
(condensed title)

One of the more disturbing trial accounts to come out of the Continent, Peeter's covers every element of early modern witchcraft and werewolf trials. The accused is supposed to have made a pact with the devil in order to acquire pleasure and fame. He is given a girdle to wear so that he may commit atrocities in the form of a wolf. Said atrocities include the rape (in human shape) and consumption (in wolf form) of several young women, at least two of whom were pregnant, as well as the murder of thirteen children. During this time, Peeter is said to have routinely slept with his daughter, with whom he had a child, as well as his "Gossip," Katherine Trompin. He is also accused of murdering his own son (Freudians/Lacanians read the passage where he "encountered" his son as a rape scene, but Peeter is in wolf shape then, so murder alone is most likely, within his pattern--he always rapes in human shape and kills in wolf shape).

Under threat of torture, Peeter confessed to all the crimes. Accompanying woodcuts show that Peeter was sentenced to torture before being beheaded, finally his headless corpse was burned, alongside his daughter and Gossip.

The Cupid-Psyche Myth

2009-05-11T09:15:00.000-07:00

Daugherty, Evelyn Newlyn. "The Cupid-Psyche Myth in 'Lanval,' 'Graelent,' 'Guingamor,' and 'Bisclavret.'" Thoth 16.2 (1976). 15-24.

Daugherty builds on Joseph Campbell's work, shifting from the heroic cycle to the Cupid-Psyche archetype. She claims that the pattern is not complete in "Bisclavret" but that instead of this, the defining element is Marie de France's introduction of the werewolf tradition to the pattern.Daugherty argues that one of the elements that makes "Bisclavret" stand out is that, unlike other werewolf tales, the wife is faithful until she discovers the secret. In other tales, the wife is unfaithful, then discovers the werewolf secret. In this regard, she argues, "Bisclavret" brings the Cupid-Psyche pattern into the werewolf tradition. As she notes, Bisclavret's wife begins with curiosity that becomes, justifiable, fear, as opposed to the wives in "Melion" or "Arthur and Gorlagon" who begin as unfaithful and merely seek a way to remove an inconvenient husband.

Sir Gowther

2009-05-07T09:35:00.000-07:00

Anon. "Sir Gowther." Six Middle English Romances. Ed. Maldwyn Mills. Everyman's Library, 1982. 148-168.

Technically the romance lacks werewolves. However, it is related in that the eponymous character is told by Rome that he, the child of a woman and a demon, must act as a dog in order to atone for his sins. Thus, Gowther serves in a foreign court as a dog (without changing form) for an agreed upon period. During this time, he secretly fights for his lord and ultimately atones for his past life.

Glossographia

2009-05-06T15:39:00.000-07:00

Blount, Thomas. Glossographia: Or a Dictionary, Interpreting all Such Hard Words of Whatsoever Language, Now Used in Our Refined English Tongue. London, 1661.
(abbreviated title)

Blount's dictionary does include two relevant entries. The first is lycanthropy, which he defines as "a frenzy or melancholy" in keeping with the English thinkers of his day, including Burton and Bayfield. The second is were-wulf or were-wolf, which he defines as "a certain Sorcerer, who having anointed his body with an Ointment" made by the Devil can "seem as a Wolf." Here, he claims the term is only used by the Germans (Teutonics) and references Stubbe Peeter as "Peter Stump" as well as associating werewolves with the murder of "humane creatures" (humans).

We should take into account the fact that Blount's definitions are biased, though. For example, he defines Machiavellian as "a subtil Statesman, or cunning Politician; So taken from Nicholas Machiavel, Recorder of Florence, whose Politicks have poisoned almost all Europe."

A Discovery of the Impostures of Witches and Astrologers

2009-05-04T13:03:00.000-07:00

Brinley, John. A Discovery of the Impostures of Witches and Astrologers. London, 1680.

Brinley's tract, when it discusses lycanthropy (pages 18-21), lifts its language almost word for word from Deacon & Walker and Bayfield. Like the others of his day, and nation, Brinley refers to all delusions of animal transformation as "lycanthropy." Unlike the others, he does add to the list of symptoms, to include convulsions, "fearful Outcries" and "most hideous Shriekings" (19). He does add that there is a division between the beliefs of the common populace and the knowledge of the scholarly gentleman regarding shape-changers, and uses that difference as a means of railing against uncharitable, and one might even add charlatan, physicians.

Discoverie of Witchcraft, The

2009-04-30T12:57:00.000-07:00

Scot, Reginald. The Discoverie of Witchcraft. London, 1584.

Scot's discussion of shape-shifting (Book 5, Chapters 1-7) is primarily devoted to repudiating Jean Bodin and the Malleus Maleficarum. In fact, he calls the first chapter "Of transformations, ridiculous examples brought by the adversaries for the confirmation of their foolish doctrine." Essentially, he argues in favor of imagined transformations and psychological disorders, from an Augustinian perspective. His fifth chapter summarizes the brief discussion nicely: "That the body of a man cannot be turned into the body of a beast by a witch, is proved by strong reason, scriptures, and authorities" (including references to Corinthians, Psalms, Philistines).

A Treatise de Morborum Capitis Essentiis

2009-04-29T14:57:00.000-07:00

Bayfield, Robert. Της Ιατρικης Καρτοσ or A Treatise de Morborum Capitis Essentiis & Prognosticis. London, 1663.

A few of Bayfield's "above three hundred Choice and Rare Observations" touch on lycanthropy. The most notable is "Cap. XXIII: De Lupina Insania." What follows is a very clinical description of "wolf madness," including physical symptoms of the insanity. Although he calls it "wolf madness," Bayfield does include on instance of a man believing he was a bear in the case studies. The entire description takes up just under two pages of Bayfield's treatise.

The Naked Beast

2009-04-27T09:50:00.000-07:00

Benkov, Edith. "The Naked Beast: Clothing and Humanity in 'Bisclavret'." Chimeres 19.2 (1998), 27-43.

Benkov argues that "Bisclavret is not only changed into an ill-treated and betrayed husband, but into a sympathetic character whose 'beastliness' will both serve justice and restore a certain order, albeit one which is different from that at the outset of the tale" (28). She presents her case with references to a somewhat parallel tale, Melion, although she does make some of the same errors as others. Notably, Benkov refers to Bisclavret as "an unfortunate who has no control over his nature" even though there is no evidence in the tale that he is unfortunate or lacks control (the lai only says that he spends three days a week in the woods, not that it is always the same three days nor that he is forced to do so).

As expected from the title, Benkov focuses on the role of clothing in Marie's tale, and adds a discussion of the multiple layers of story in the brief tale. She argues that the wife's movement and actions (esp. regarding Bisclavret's clothing) are responsible for subverting the monstrous werewolf and turning it into a sympathetic figure.

Fictus Lupus

2009-04-19T18:48:00.001-07:00

Kratz, Dennis M. "Fictus Lupus: The Werewolf in Christian Thought." Classical Folia 30.1 (1976). 57-80.

Krat argues that not only was the werewolf a graphic Christian symbol for the potential for evil inherent in man, but that the werewolf was also an important concept in medieval theology and canon law as well as literature. Over teh course of the article, Kratz cites Boethius and the Bible as well as Ovid, Petronius, Pliny, and Varro. For Boethius, he notes that the werewolf would be a "capitulation to, those powerful non-rational forces which can impel a man to violent and cruel acts" (58). Kratz points to St. Augustine as representative of the Church's position that actual physical change did not occur, rather that an illusion of change perpetrated by demons accounted for the phenomenon. This position, he notes, was held to the point that St. Boniface listed belief in werewolves as a work of the devil that Christians needed to renounce.

Interestingly, and in a point that other authors do not mention, Kratz states that for the medieval Church, "Sin is impossible in a being lacking reason; for sin involves the rational consent of the human to temptation" (67-8). Thus werewolves, being sinning creatures, had to be rational and therefore human--and must reassume human form to be saved. Therefore, the werewolf in Guillaume de Palerne (and William of Palerne) must become human at the end in order to resolve this Christian tension.

Kratz concludes that "the Christian rejection of the reality of the werewolf is essentially a rejection of two frightening notions: that God or the devil can divorce a living person from the possibility of Heaven; and conversely, that a man can commit a sinful act for which he is not responsible" (78).

Werewolves in Medieval Ireland

2009-04-13T11:09:00.000-07:00

Carey, John. "Werewolves in Medieval Ireland." Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies 44 (Winter 2002). 37-72.

In this article, Carey attempts "to come to a firmer understanding of what [. . .] evidence actually is" present regarding Irish lycanthropy (37). His first section, "The Werewolf's Tale," proceeds to outline the known werewolf tales from Ireland and previous research - including James Carney, George Lyman Kittredge, A.H Krappe (see previous entries), and R.S. Loomis - concerning the origins of those tales. His second section - "Lycanthropy and Resurrection" - approaches a pre-13th century text linking the two phenomena, possibly referring to reincarnation (47).

The third section - "The Werewolves of Ossory" - contains a detailed discussion of Gerald of Wales' account of Irish werewolves. Here, Carey notes a later Norse account of the story in which the saint is changed from the local Natalis to the more well known Patrick and the reason for cursing the village is explained (the villagers mocked Patrick). Also included is a tale from Bishop Patrick of Dublin (1074-1084) in which certain people in Ireland having "a special power, which enables them to prey upon their neighbors" in the form of wolves (54). These individuals, according to other legends, were the kings of Ossory - the place of origin for Gerald's werewolves. However, Carey also notes that only Gerald of Wales presents a man and woman changing form for a period of seven years (medieval numerology having 3 and 4 stand for female and male) and portraying them as benign beings rather than violently destructive. This, for Carey and others, represents Gerald attempting a political and theological statement regarding the invasion of Ireland.

Carey's final sections - "Female Werewolves" and "The Werewolf as Metaphor" - are both brief and exist largely to present tales that do not fit into the other sections or to wrap up his argument.

Rescuing Ovid from the Allegorizers

2009-04-07T15:57:00.000-07:00

Javitch, Daniel. "Rescuing Ovid from the Allegorizers." Comparative Literature. 30.2 (Spring 1978). 97-107.

Although Javitch's article focuses primarily on Ovid's tale of Andromeda and how it was treated by medieval audiences before, and including, Ludovico Ariosto, because he employs Metamorphoses, there are broader conclusions to draw from the article. For example, Javitch argues that during the medieval period Ovid's stories were altered by removing anything that did not fit into predetermined - Christian - significance. This predetermination came in the form of allegorical endings tacked on by medieval writers/translators. Based on this particular example, one can assume (or find evidence) that Ovid's tales of metamorphosis - including those of Lycaeon, Syrinx, Actaeon, and others - were similarly excerpted and revised, thus creating a misrepresentation of Ovid among the medieval audience, at least for those who came to the text through clerical renditions, which would be most if not all readers. Why might this be important? Because Ovid composed one of the earliest collections of shape-changing stories in Western history and because his work was one of the most copied, read, and purchased texts of the medieval period (as argued by Michel Jeanneret, among others).

Dual Natures and Subverted Glosses: Marie de France's "Bisclavret"

2009-03-30T12:41:00.000-07:00

Freeman, Michelle A. "Dual Natures and Subverted Glosses: Marie de France's 'Bisclavret'." Romance Notes 25 (Spring 1985), 288-301.

Freeman claims that Marie's use of the female as villainess "might appear to stem from the clerkly misogyny so prevalent in medieval romance narrative" but is in fact a subversion of the cliche that "point[s] out the dangers and the fallacies of such facile stereotyping" (289). The importance of this piece for studies of metamorphs is Freeman's indirect discussion of courtly behavior with regard to Bisclavret, his king, and his wife's lover. As Freeman notes, the wife has power over both her husband and the knight because she exploits the inherent incompatibility of their feudal obligations (or chivalric obligations to their lord) and their obligations to "love service" with regard to the female object of their courtly love (293). This turns Bisclavret's attack upon his wife (while he is a wolf) into an act of chivalric justice--attacking one who has betrayed his king.

Ultimately, to extend Freeman's argument, Marie's werewolf serves to question the potentially conflicting natures of courtly love and chivalric service, the two highest ideals of knighthood. Of course, we see this conflict expressed elsewhere with Lancelot (Chretien de Troyes and elsewhere), Tristan (Beroul), and Yvain (Chretien de Troyes), but the werewolf, who is a physical representation of dual nature, seems best representative of this conflict.

Of Men and Beasts in Bisclavret

2009-03-29T07:12:00.000-07:00

Bruckner, Matilda Tomaryn. "Of Men and Beasts in Bisclavret." Romanic Review, 81.3 (1991), 251-269.

Bruckner approaches Maries "Bisclavret from a few perspectives. She notes that Bisclavret is one of a mere two husbands in Marie's lais who are sympathetic, yet he is a "monstrous" werewolf. In her analysis, Bruckner mentions several dualities, or oppositions, that she sees the tale questioning - man-woman, forest-court, nature-society, man-beast, individual-species. These, she argues, form the basis of the title character's dual nature, which also connect him to the dual nature of his species - humanity. Thus, she argues, "Bisclavret is no less human than he was at the beginning of his story" (256). However, the wife becomes more bestial as the tale progresses. This becomes important in Bruckner's conception of period hierarchical bonds, love bonds, and questions of identity.

She also points out that a number of common elements of period werewolf tales are missing in Marie - there is no discussion of how he became a werewolf, nothing notable about what he does in the woods, no cannibalism or sexual innuendoes. Even his most "bestial" trait - rage - is understandable, seeing as his wife betrayed his trust. Ultimately, Bruckner argues, Bisclavret demonstrates that the bestial impulses can be controlled by human reason.

The Bewildering Bounded/Bounding Bisclavret, or Lycanthropy, Lieges, and a Lotta Leeway in Marie de France

2009-03-25T05:45:00.000-07:00

Pappa, Joseph. "The Bewildering Bounded/Bounding Bisclavret, or Lycanthropy, Lieges, and a Lotta Leeway in Marie de France." Crossings 4 (2000), 117-143.

Beginning with Gervase of Tilbury, Pappa discusses the "cultural construction of humanity in regards to monsters" as it affects conceptions of the werewolf in the early middle ages, specifically with regard to Marie de France. Basically, he argues that Marie's werewolf never stops acting human (or "performing 'human'") so therefore he is, was, and will be human. He also ties Marie's understanding of the tale, or rather her Breton sources' understanding, to conceptions of the Irish fian. Many of his arguments are problematic when viewed in light of the textual evidence. Pappa also contradicts himself in initially arguing that Bisclavret does not undertake a physical transformation, and then building an argument based on Bisclavret's physical transformation.

However, Pappa does continue the view that Bisclavret is the victim of some curse or other malevolent magic, despite the lack of textual evidence for such a claim. He also uses Burgess and Busby's as well as Charlotte Otten's flawed prose translations of the story instead of Hanning and Ferrante's excellent verse translation. Much of his discussion of Gervase is also based on Montague Summers' problematic interpretations (discussed in a previous entry).

While some may not consider the following a flaw, Pappa's interpretation is heavily influenced by Judith Butler's theoretical work on homosocial bonds as well as other elements of queer theory that may or may not be applicable, including Leslie Dunton-Downer's work. That said, Pappa also employs Jeffrey Jerome Cohen (monster theory) and Caroline Bynum to some extent.

Bisclavret in Marie de France: A Reply

2009-03-23T12:23:00.000-07:00

Sayers, William. "Bisclavret in Marie de France: A Reply." Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies 4 (Winter 1982), 77-82.

In this piece, Sayers partially argues against Bailey's article (see previous post). He claims that any link between Arabic translators in Spain and the Bretons is tenuous at best and certainly unlikely to take root in popular usage. As support, he calls the word "laveret" hypothetically Breton, as it apparently does not really exist. Sayers also notes that later terms are: bleiz garo and den bleiz (the former from the French and the latter "wolf man"), rather than bisclavret.

Sayers points out that western Europe and southern Italy/the Balkans maintained to different, major, werewolf traditions in the medieval period. The latter being those who changed periodically into wolves and the former being those who were changed by an outside force. Although overly simplified (there are several traditions Sayers does not mention), complexity isn't required for his point. He notes that both traditions are present in Marie and in Celtic (thus Breton) legend.

Linguistically, he argues that the proper breakdown of the word is bis- (a truncation of bleiz, wolf) and -clavret (from claff, sick). Thus producing "sick or leprous wolf" and reconnecting the werewolf specifically to leprosy and generally to illness - the fact that Marie's werewolf does not appear sick notwithstanding.

Arguably a drawback, Sayers uses a very limited, one might say conservative, definition of shape-shifter that excludes those beings who change shape due to external influences (enchantments, curses, and the like).

Bisclavret in Marie de France

2009-03-22T06:19:00.000-07:00

Bailey, H.W. "Bisclavret in Marie de France." Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies 1 (Summer 1981). 95-97.

This extremely short piece (really only two pages without the footnotes) approaches Marie's Bisclavret from a linguistic perspective. Specifically, Bailey looks into the difficulty of translating "bisclavret" from the Breton. With a fair amount of relatively extraneous material, Bailey notes that the Breton roots are: bleid or bleiz ("wolf") and laveret or lavret ("rational"), although lavret can also mean "speaking" - thus, "bisclavret" becomes "rational (or speaking) wolf".

Bailey also lists European variations on "man-wolf":
French - loup garou
Norse - vargulfr
Old English - werewolf
Old High German - werwolf
Armenian - mardagail (man-beast)
Ossetic - lag-sird (man-beast)
Georgian - mgel-k'ac'a (wolf-man)

The Lycanthropy Metaphor in Marie de France's Bisclavret

2009-03-19T05:42:00.000-07:00

Jorgensen, Jean. "The Lycanthropy Metaphor in Marie de France's Bisclavret." Selecta: Journal of the PNCFL (1994). 24-30.

Jorgensen approaches the 12th century Anglo-French romance from a linguistic perspective. According to her introduction, she seeks to examine first "the werewolf topos in general; secondly, the metamorphoses, both literal and symbolic, of Bisclavret (the baron) and his wife; and lastly, the function of language and gesture in these two transformations" (24).

For the first part, she covers Kathryn Holton's work, discussions of the wolf among the Romans, the laws of Canute, and general folklore. Jorgensen notes that for Marie the werewolf represents human nature, a mix of the bestial and the noble. She also points out that it is the baron's very nobility (his love for his wife) that leads to his undoing. Finally, asa major point, she argues that the baron's loss of spoken language represents a failure of feudal bonds (ed.: if we can make such a generalization) due to the early importance of spoken vows to feudal agreements.

This article does have its flaws. Primarily, Jorgensen falls into the same trap as Holton (whom she quotes on this aspect) and others have. That is, she makes the claim that the baron is an "involuntary werewolf [who] is a cursed victim under the control of some external force [. . .] Marie de France portrays Bisclavret as a victim who retains his noble human characteristics in spite of his imposed lycanthropy" (25). The second part of the statement, of course, makes sense. However, as myself and other critics have pointed out, nowhere in the lai does Marie explain why or how it is that the baron is a werewolf. No mention of a curse is ever made. Nor is there any mention of a cure at the end. Therefore, to claim that he is cursed (especially when he appears to be quite happy with his situation or ability) becomes both improvable and a tenuous foundation for an argument.

Arthur and Gorlagon

2009-03-15T06:39:00.000-07:00

Krappe, A. Haggerty. "Arthur and Gorlagon." Speculum 8 (April 1933): 209-222.

Krappe's discussion of the romance "Arthur and Gorlagon" is a relatively early foray into discussing the tale. His perspective is a folklorists in which he attempts to trace the folkloric roots of the tale through "Oriental", Persian, Egyptian, Russian, and other sources. Thus, his primary purpose is not to interpret the romance, nor to really discuss its content in depth, but rather to trace "the story migration from Orient to Occident" as a result of the Crusades (222). As such, the article does little to add to our understanding of "Arthur and Gorlagon" directly, but does provide a collection of related, in some cases even identical, stories from several cultures.

Werewolves, Monsters, and Miracles: Representing Colonial Fantasies in Gerald of Wales's Topographia Hibernica

2009-03-13T13:45:00.000-07:00

Knight, Rhonda. "Werewolves, Monsters, and Miracles: Representing Colonial Fantasies in Gerald of Wales's Topographia Hibernica." Studies in Iconography. 22 (2001). 55-86.

After providing an excellent historical and textual context for Gerald of Wales' history of Ireland, Knight presents a case for the text to be read as a politically motivated piece devoted to representing "Irish Otherness for its readers/viewers" (55). With regards to shape-shifting and werewolves, Knight interprets the Meath werewolves as connecting the Irish to hybrid creatures, neither human nor animal, neither Christian nor pagan. Therefore the invasion becomes a mission of mercy to bring the Irish back into the fold of Christendom. This forms the lens through which Knight looks at many of Gerald's miracle and creature stories.

She points out that the curse upon the werewolves' village is not explained, at least in terms of why Natalis called down the curse. Knight also discusses the question of the werewolves' humanity, with regard to the taking of communion (a central theological and legal issue for Gerald and his clerical readers). Additionally, Knight argues, the werewolves "authorize and support colonization" of Ireland by the English through their mixed human-animal, civilized-uncivilized identity (73). Knight also explains that Gerald's depiction of the werewolves as human comes via Augustine's De civitatae Dei, especially shown when the female werewolf has to "become human" in order to receive the sacrament, rather than remaining in her wolf shape.

"Hairy on the In-side": The Duchess of Malfi and the Body of Lycanthropy

2009-03-06T07:25:00.000-08:00

Enterline, Lynn. "'Hairy on the In-side': The Duchess of Malfi and the Body of Lycanthropy." The Yale Journal of Criticism 7.2 (1994). 85-129.

Enterline's article is very much focused on the body of eponymous Duchess in Webster's play, as her title suggests. She expands this discussion to include talk of various bodies throughout the play and returns to the implied connection between lycanthropy and prostitution (present since at least ancient Rome but certainly implied in Webster). This brings Enterline into discussions of the fluidity of gender, including a reference to hyenas (Webster 2.5.53), which she takes from the laughing hyena perspective, rather than including the folkloric belief that hyenas were capable of changing their biological sex.

As in most secondary werewolf literature, Enterline brings up the inherent boundary crossing, or border disputes. Her perspective, however, is the Freudian-Lacanian interpretation, although she does touch on the social in connecting Ferdinand's illness as a metaphor for the illness of the corpus politicus (body politic), thus expanding the body that she mentions in the title.

Additionally, she does discuss the blurred line between stage and audience within the play, in terms of lycanthropy as a "spreading disease" via melancholy. The suggestion Enterline makes is that either the spectator or the spectacle (the actor) may fall ill and suffer from melancholia, in this case, though, the spectacle fortunately becomes the afflicted. Finally, her endnotes are extensive (8 pages) and quite helpful for both research and explanatory purposes.

Wolves, Witches, and Werewolves: Lycanthropy and Witchcraft from 1423 to 1700

2009-03-04T05:17:00.000-08:00

Davidson, Jane P. "Wolves, Witches, and Werewolves: Lycanthropy and Witchcraft from 1423 to 1700." Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 2.4 (1990). 47-68.

Davidson explores the fifteenth to eighteenth century debate over the division between witchcraft and lycanthropy. She attempts to examine the dichotomy and visual iconography of the witch and werewolf images in the period. She provides a fairly comprehensive collection of primary materials from the period in the title including: Vincenti, Molitor, Bodin, Stubbe Peeter, and the (in-)famous Malleus Maleficarum. Ultimately, she notes that "almost all sixteenth-century witchcraft literature discussed lycanthropy" (52). Davidson also highlights the continual divide between the general populace and the clergy with regard to the issue of belief in lycanthropy or werewolfism. She suggests that academic, clerical, and scholarly belief in werewolves had more or less passed sometime in the seventeenth century based on the surviving written works and the decrease in appearances of lycnathropy in witchcraft books and broadsides.

One important, and interesting, fact that Davidson discovers is that "there are no cases of persons having been 'infected' with lycanthropy through the bite of, or physical attack of, another werewolf recorded in the period of the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries. Nor were there any supernatural means, as today's 'silver bullets,' to kill a werewolf" (57). Another benefit with Davidson is that her collection of end notes and references is fairly extensive when it comes to teh primary source material.

Werewolves and Severed Hands: Webster's "The Duchess of Malfi" and Heywood and Brome's "The Witches of Lancashire"

2009-03-01T06:20:00.000-08:00

Hirsh, Brett. "Werewolves and Severed Hands: Webster's The Duchess of Malfi and Heywood and Brome's The Witches of Lancashire." Notes and Queries. 53.1 (March 2006). 92-94.

Hirsh discusses Henri Boguet briefly with regard to Albert Tricomi's claim of Boguet's influence on Webster. He argues against Tricomi's claim, citing Goulart. Rather, Hirsh argues, Boguet is a source for Heywood and Brome (1634). Further, he argues, the Witches playwrights drew inspiration from a 1633-4 trial in Lancashire--metamorphoses of a witch into a greyhound and a bot into a horse (perhaps a recollection and expansion of a 1612 trial). However, the trial does not make a connection between lycanthropy and a severed hand episode, as both Boguet and Witches do, therefore, Hirsh argues, there must be at least one other source for Heywood and Brome's representation of shape-shifting. His answer to this second source is Boguet.

The Harry Potter Stories and French Arthurian Romance

2009-02-28T06:13:00.000-08:00

Arden, Heather and Kathryn Lorenz. "The Harry Potter Stories and French Arthurian Romance." Arthuriana 13.2 (2003). 54-68.

A few generalized article looking at exactly what the title says. The authors spend a fair amount of time on character name translation and establishing Rowling's apparent knowledge of French literature. Most of the rest of the article focuses on Harry' relationship to Chretien de Troyes' Percival.

With regards to shape-shifting, Arden and Lorenz briefly make the connection between Remus Lupin and both Marie de France's "Bisclavret" and the anonymous "Melion."

The Wolving Time

2008-10-26T10:08:00.000-07:00

Jennings, Patrick. The Wolving Time. New York: Scholastic, 2003.

Set in late sixteenth-century France, Jennings' novel follows the life of Laszlo Emberek and his family. The shepherds, who live between two villages, are secretly werewolves. In order to maintain their secret, Laszlo is sent to the church on Sundays to allay suspicions during this era of witch trials and burnings. Laszlo is, of course, presented with the classic werewolf choice: run with the wild animals or remain with the "civilized" man. Written for the children's/young adult audience, Jennings employs a number of traditional elements of werewolf literature. Among these are the process of bathing in a pool by moonlight to effect the transformation (especially the first time) and a wariness around Christian symbols. However, the latter could simply be concern that the local zealous priest might discover their secret rather than being a necessity linked to their werewolfism. Throughout the novel, Jennings remains within the limits of traits presented in early modern French werewolf trials.

On the whole, this is a very good novel and an excellent introduction to sympathetic werewolves for a younger audience.

Delays and Excuses

2008-09-13T10:32:00.001-07:00

I've been very bad at updating this blog and my other one lately. But, there's a good excuse . . . I defended my dissertation the other day and passed, so the last two weeks have been spent in preparation and apparently paid off.

The Book of Werewolves

2008-08-25T07:21:00.000-07:00

Baring-Gould, Sabine. The Book of Werewolves: Being an Account of a Terrible Superstition. New York: Causeway Books, 1973. (Reprint)

As with Montague Summers' book, Baring-Gould's work is affected by a certain degree of colonialism although not to quite the same extent. What Baring-Gould does do an excellent job of is providing a cross-cultural, historical collection of information regarding werewolves along with some attempt at interpretation. Perhaps the best parts of his work are the first eight chapters. These cover: the ancient world, northern medieval (most Norse, whether Scandinavian or Icelandic), general medieval (including Livonian, Prague, Irish, French, and German accounts), folklore, and the Renaissance (through Jena Grenier and some lesser known werewolf trials). After those, Baring-Gould discusses turn of the century psychological theories of lycanthropy followed by mythology. He devotes three chapters to the Marechal de Retz (the source of the Bluebeard stories) before returning to solid werewolf discussions with an account from Galicia. The last two chapters are spent on werehyenas and a sermon regarding werewolves from Dr. Johann Geiler.

Unfortunately for those seeking a treatise on werewolves, Baring-Gould uses a very broad definition of the term. In his discussion, especially chapters nine to thirteen, he uses lycanthropy/werewolfism as a catch-all term for any sort of violent behavior. Case in point, Baring-Gould includes Nero, Caligula, a bloodthirsty Hungarian noblewoman, dragons, and "natural" mass murders in his list of "werewolves". This last tendency, while interesting in terms of his theories regarding violent tendencies in humans, has unfortunately clouded later research into the phenomena of werewolves and shape-shifters.

Tanith Lee's Werewolves Within: Reversals of Gothic Traditions

2008-08-21T08:28:00.000-07:00

Heldreth, Lillian M. "Tanith Lee's Werewolves Within: Reversals of Gothic Traditions." Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts 2 (Spring 1989): 15-23.

Heldreth argues that Lee presents a different version of the werewolf in her stories "Wolfland" and Lycanthia. She covers a wide territory from zoology to Jungian archetype analysis in a brief essay. From the first perspective, Heldreth argues that Lee subverts Gothic and Hollywood representations of the werewolf by applying scientific research. Her werewolves, then, act more like real wolves than like mistaken cultural stereotypes of wolves. The other connects Lee's werewolves with Jung's shadow archetype, a connection made by several scholars with various werewolf authors. In her close analysis, Heldreth makes additional comparisons between Lee's werewolves and the "Little Red Riding Hood" tale that Lee effectively re-writes.

Metamorphosis and Identity

2008-08-09T08:07:00.000-07:00

Bynum, Caroline Walker. Metamorphosis and Identity. New York: Zone Books, 2005.

After an introduction entitled "Change in the Middle Ages," Bynum's book reprints a collection of four essays and speeches. Included are: "Wonder," "Metamorphosis, or Gerald and the Werewolf," "Monsters, Medians, and Marvelous Mixtures: Hybrids in the Spirituality of Bernard of Clairvaux," and "Shape and Story." Continuing Bynum's corpus of work, these pieces all approach the concepts of transformation and metamorphosis from the perspective of medieval religion. In the process, she outlines two types of metamorphosis in the introduction: replacement-change and evolution-change. She then places the concept of change as well as specific tales in their historical context of ideas.

The important essays for this bibliography are "Metamorphosis" and "Shape and Story." The first is a broad work that covers a variety of texts in order to focus on Gerald of Wales' story of the Ulster werewolves. Bynum connects the story to rising interest in Ovid, theological speculation, and the question of boundaries. In the process, she points to a rise in popularity for werewolf stories in the twelfth-century that coincides with significant social change and rising interest in Ovid, especially Metamorphoses. "Shape and Story" is interested in how tales of werewolves and other metamorphic change related to the audiences' concept of personal and group identity. In this case, she employs Ovid, Church records (including their ban on discussions of/belief in werewolves), Marie de France, as well as Angela Carter and Saki. The key point for Bynum is that change is an inevitable fact of life, it is constantly occurring, and tales of werewolves or other metamorphic beings offer a safe means of discussing and coming ot grips with the idea of constant, perpetual change.

Estonia I: Werewolves and Poisoners

2008-08-08T05:00:00.000-07:00

Madar, Maia. "Estonia I: Werewolves and Poisoners." Early Modern European Witchcraft: Centres and Peripheries. Eds. Bengt Ankarloo and Gustav Henningsen. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001. 257-272.

In this essay, Madar looks at Estonian witch trials from the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries (roughly 1520-1729). The essay provides an excellent discussion and compilation of raw data from gender, alleged crimes (with specific details), punishments, and number of sentences. The important part for this bibliography is near the end of the essay when Madar discusses the conflation of witchcraft and lycanthropy (a fairly common conflation in Eastern Europe for centuries, but especially common throughout Europe from about 1600 onward). Here, she creates an illustration of the methods by which witches of both sexes supposedly changed their forms, generally into wolves. She also notes that, according to the trial records, in Estonia, as in some other parts of Europe, witchcraft was considered to be morally neutral. That is, she notes, witchcraft was a neutral tool that could be used for good or evil purposes, and by association so was human-to-animal shape-shifting.

A Lycanthropy Reader

2008-08-06T04:54:00.001-07:00

Otten, Charlotte ed. A Lycanthropy Reader: Werewolves in Western Culture. New York: Dorset Press, 1989.

For this anthology, Otten provides a wide ranging collection of articles, essays, stories, and short verse. She starts with medical cases from the seventeenth and twentieth centuries (American Journal of Psychiatry, Goulart, Robert Burton, Robert Bayfield). The second section covers trial records and historical accounts from the twelfth through twentieth centuries (Gerald of Wales, Jean Grenier, Stubbe Peeter, Henri Boguet, Elliot O'Donnell). The third is philosophical/theological (Malleus Maleficarum, Reginald Scot, James I/VI, Deacon and Walker). Fourth is critical essays from H.R. Ellis Davidson, E. William Monter, Stuart Clark, and L. Illis. Otten's fifth section covers myths and legends (Ovid, Petronius, "Arthur and Gorlagon", Marie de France, Eugene Field, and Eric Stenbock). Finally, she wraps up with allegory through a single example - Clemence Housman's "The Were-Wolf".

This anthology is a very good starting post for research. That said, Otten's translations of pre-20th century works are all into prose form. Although the basic story elements for Marie de France and Ovid, for instance, are accurate, employing a better (verse) translation would be much better. Even so, Otten's rendition is a good way to brush up on the tales. Otten also minimizes her own commentary, usually limited to a page or two at the start of each section to explain what the section is.

The Monstrous Middle Ages

2008-08-05T10:55:00.000-07:00

Bildhauer, Bettina and Robert Mills eds. The Monstrous Middle Ages. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003.

This academic anthology contains several, albeit brief, references to shape-shifting (as metamorphosis) and werewolves in various contexts. Robert Mills' "Jesus as Monster" approaches the werewolf through Gerald of Wales' account and medieval discussions of miracles or transubstantiation (30-34). Asa Simon Mittman's "The Other Close at Hand: Gerald of Wales and the 'Marvels of the West'" also looks at Gerald in terms of terrifying hybridity and religious marvels (103-104). Although a few of the other essays make brief references to metamorphosis or change/transformation, none spend more than a sentence or two on the subject. That said, Mittman and Mills are useful for completeness and some of the points they make regarding Gerald.

The Werewolf in Lore and Legend

2008-08-04T11:59:00.000-07:00

Summers, Montague. The Werewolf in Lore and Legend. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2003. (Originally published in London, 1933.)

Although dated and filled with late-nineteenth/early twentieth-century colonial bias, Summers' work on werewolves is a classic second only to Sabine Baring-Gould's. He begins by seeking the source of the term werewolf. This search takes Summers through Guillaume dr Palerne, Piers Ploughman, Malory's Morte d'Arthur, and Stubbe Peeter, among others. The survey ranges across Europe from France to Russia, England to Italy. And this sets the tone for the entire book. After the initial chapter, he discusses wolves and lycanthrology via Bodin, the Malleus Maleficarum, Virgil, Ovid, Augustine, and numerous others. In the process, Summers dredges up an impressive quantity of minor texts produced during the Renaissance and earlier.

His later chapters are devoted to specific geographic regions: Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal; England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland; France; "the North," Russia, and Germany. Then Summers includes a brief note regarding literature (17 pages). This note makes mention of a fairly complete collection of late-19th and early-20th century werewolf stories, including those by Saki, Algernon Blackwood, Eugene Field, and Ambrose Bierce, a number of which have been reprinted in late-20th century anthologies. Moreover, Summers' bibliography is very complete up through about 1930.

Perceiving Animals

2008-08-03T19:24:00.000-07:00

Fudge, Erica. Perceiving Animals: Humans and Beasts in Early Modern English Culture. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2002.

Erica Fudge spends a little time discussing the werewolf in Early Modern (Renaissance) thought. Her focus in the discussion is the relationship between concepts of the werewolf and concepts of animals in general and wolves in particular. This primarily involves how the conception of werewolves fed views of wolves and vice versa. She points to the fact that even after the extermination of the native wolf population in England, stories of transformations and werewolves were imported from the Continent. In the process, she (at least briefly) covers all the standards of the period, including:

Albertus Magnus
Augustine
Jean Bodin
Henri Bouget
Robert Bolton
Robert Burton
Deacon and Walker
King James VI/I
Ovid
Reginald Scot
Stubbe Peeter
John Webster

Fudge's text is very useful for acquiring an idea of what Early Modern Englishmen thought about the werewolf, human-to-animal transformation, and animals in general.

Four Archetypes

2008-08-02T06:17:00.000-07:00

Jung, C.G. Four Archetypes: Mother/Rebirth/Spirit/Trickster. Trans. R.F.C. Hull. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1992.

In this particular text, taken from Jung's larger works, the psychoanalyst discusses shape-shifting in relation to two of his archetypes - spirit and trickster. The first case is mentioned in terms of symbolic theriomorphism present in fairy tales. For such tales, Jung states that "The animal form shows that the contents and functions in question are still in the extrahuman sphere, i.e., on a plane beyond human consciousness" (108). Throughout the discussion of the spirit archetype, Jung redefines the term "theriomorph" to refer to any animal that speaks, guides, or acts rationally, rather than to refer to a person who turns into an animal. With regard to the trickster archetype, Jung assigns the shape-shifting ability as a trait of the archetype. This trait, he argues, serves to place the archetype in the human position - as literally a divine animal, simultaneously super-human and sub-human and therefore occupying the same place as humans stuck between the divine and the animal. According to Jung's understanding and placement, all shape-shifters are tricksters and vice versa.

The Romance of William of Palerne

2008-08-01T04:39:00.000-07:00

Anon. The Romance of William of Palerne. ed. Walter W. Skeat. London: Elibron Classics, 2005.

The Elibron edition of this romance is a reproduction (facsimile) of the 1867 edition. To date, it is the only Middle English version of the text that I have found aside from the original. Other editions of the pre-English translation, Guillaume de Palerne, are available from several publishers. This, however, is an edition of the fourteenth-century English translation of Guillaume, the first 500 or so lines of which have been lost and must be extrapolated from the French.

The romance is fairly straightforward in plot. William is born to the king and queen of Palerne. His uncle plots to kill him, but he is rescued by a nameless wolf. The kidnapping wolf is referred to as a werewolf during his escape. The wolf takes the child to Rome where William is raised first by a humble couple in the woods, then by the Emperor and falls in love with his daughter. The audience learns that the wolf is a werewolf known as Alphouns, the son of the king of Spain who was turned into a wolf by his step-mother so that her son would inherit the throne. Long story short, William and Melior escape her father and, with the werewolf's help and guidance, make their way to Palerne just in time to save the kingdom from the invading king of Spain. In the process, the truth about Alphouns is revealed, his step-mother is punished, he is restored to human shape, and he marries William's sister. William marries Melior and becomes the next Emperor of Rome and everyone is happy.

Although named for William, the romance would end very quickly without the presence and actions of Alphouns the werewolf. Thus, the werewolf is the central character of the romance, despite being on the fringes. In many ways, as some critics have noted, he fills the classical eiron or witty servant role.

The City of God

2008-07-30T09:34:00.000-07:00

Augustine. The City of God. Trans. Marcus Dods. New York: The Modern Library, 1993.

The important sections of Augustine’s City of God are in Book 18, sections 16-18. In these sections, he discusses first the story of Diomedes’ companions turning into birds. For the time, he accepts the story as it is with no attempt to ascertain its validity. The next section covers the Odyssey’s story of Circe turning Odysseus’ men into animals and the Arcadians who could supposedly turn themselves into wolves. The latter coming from the story of Lycaon. Book 18.18 is the point where Augustine turns to the question of whether these stories can be believed. This, much longer, section includes the abovementioned stories and Apuleius’ The Golden Ass to simultaneously state that the stories are false and that God can do whatever He pleases. Therefore, Augustine decides, if the stories are in fact true, then they much have been perpetrated by demons who created the illusion of transformation (because only God can truly create or transform). This became the basis for much of the Church’s response to shape-shifting and lycanthropy throughout the medieval period into the Renaissance.

The Beast Within

2008-07-28T06:22:00.000-07:00

Douglas, Adam. The Beast Within: A History of the Werewolf. New York: Avon Books, 1994.

Douglas has produced a broad history of the werewolf from pre-historic roots to the early 1990s. The book ranges across the landscape from psychological studies to folklore, mythology to film, Norse sagas to feral children. He even includes modern historical usage (the Nazis’ SS use of the werewolf) and selected modern scholars. His chapter by chapter bibliographies form a good starting point for research into the shape-shifting phenomena. The only particular weaknesses of The Beast Within are twofold. First, some of Douglas’ interpretation, especially of older sources, does not involve much knowledge of the period and culture in question. This colors his interpretations and makes some potentially misleading. The second weakness is that Douglas focuses solely on the silver screen once he reaches the twentieth century. He completely ignores the werewolf’s presence in literature (perhaps because most of these appearances are in genre literature such as horror and fantasy), as if there were no works written about the werewolf in the last century. This oversight could have been intentional, or it could have been the limits of space. Either way, the lack of later literary sources limits the book’s usefulness for anyone studying modern manifestations of the werewolf outside of Hollywood.

Metamorphoses

2008-07-28T04:46:00.000-07:00

Ovid. Metamorphoses. Trans. Rolfe Humphries. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1983.

The classic Roman metamorphosis/shape-shifting text, Ovid compiles a series of myths in which mortals, nymphs, and others are turned into various non-humanoid beings. Included are the early werewolf story of Lycaon, Europa's transformation into a cow, Actaeon, Narcissus, and numerous others. Ovid also includes elements of the Trojan war; the lives of Hercules, Perseus, and Orpheus; and some of Odysseus' travels. One of the key elements in Ovid's tales is a belief the inherent mutability of the world, as shown by the stories he chooses to include. A close read also shows that, with few exceptions, the Roman gods (according to Ovid) use human-to-animal transformation as punishment while human-to-plant transformations are rewards or protection. On the whole, Metamorphoses is one of the most important primary sources regarding shape-shifting, metamorphosis, and/or human transformation whether physical, psychological, or sociological.

The Duchess of Malfi

2008-07-26T09:52:00.000-07:00

Webster, John. The Duchess of Malfi. New York: Oxford UP, 1996.

The play is a perfect example of Renaissance English views of werewolves. Act 5 Scene 2 encapsulates this view in seeing werewolves as suffering from a mental disease, an imbalance of the humours (notably choler or melancholy). Ferdinand's descent into lycanthropy, and recovery, is also closely tied to his incestuous desire for his sister. The latter brings the werewolf "back" to connection with sexuality, especially forbidden sexuality, which is also seen in contemporary trial accounts and in some of the classical and fairy tale accounts.

In short, the eponymous duchess' husband dies so her brothers (Ferdinand and a cardinal) attempt to control her sexuality/re-marriage ostensibly for their own political purposes. Ferdinand secretly desires her for himself. Unbeknownst to either of them, the Duchess re-marries beneath her station and has two children with her secret husband. Ultimately, in a fit of lycanthropic madness (alluded to throughout the play with references to melancholy and wolves), Ferdinand slays, or has slain, his sister, her lover, and their children before falling prey to his outraged court (after his own recovery from madness). The play falls solidly into the realm of tragedy as none of the main characters survive and the ending is anything but happy. In this respect, it is similar to contemporaneous plays such as Hamlet and Titus Andronicus.

Fantastic Beasts & Where to Find Them

2008-07-24T04:48:00.001-07:00

Scamander, Newt (J.K. Rowling). Fantastic Beasts & Where to Find Them. New York: Arthur A. Levine Books, 2001.

A fictional book that first appears in Rowling's Harry Potter series, Fantastic Beasts includes brief setting specific descriptions of a couple shape-shifters including kelpies and werewolves. Rowling's boggarts are not included for unknown reasons. The discussion of werewolves is a good starting point as it covers the major setting rules regarding their existence (which are expanded upon in Prisoner of Azkaban and Half-Blood Prince).

The History and Topography of Ireland

2008-07-23T16:45:00.000-07:00

Gerald of Wales. The History and Topography of Ireland. Trans. John J. O'Meara. New York: Penguin, 1988.

In his discussion of Ireland--during the Norman invasion of the island--this part-Norman, part-Welsh churchman recorded exactly what he claimed to in his title. Beyond geography and what the modern reader would recognize as history, Gerald includes numerous pieces of folklore and legend. Among these is Part Two, section 52, entitled "The wonderful happenings of our own time; and first about a wolf that talked with a priest."

This tale concerns a priest traveling between Ulster and Meath who comes upon a talking wolf. The wolf explains that he and his mate are residents of Ossory who were turned into wolves due to a curse laid upon their region by one abbot Natalis. After seven years as wolves, the couples become human again and two others take their place. The tale involves the priest performing last rites for the female werewolf, and later being tried by several bishops who ask Gerald's opinion on the case. The point in question regards the humanity of the wolves, and therefore whether the priest erred in performing final communion. There are, however, a wide variety of other interpretations as well.

"Bisclavret" and "Yonec"

2008-07-18T21:21:00.000-07:00

de France, Marie. "Bisclavret." The Lais of Marie de France. Trans. Robert Hanning & Joan Ferrante. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2002. 92-104.

"Bisclavret" is one of the earliest portrayals of the "sympathetic" werewolf--the werewolf character whom the audience is meant to form an emotional connection with. This Breton lai follows a fairly typical pattern for medieval sympathetic werewolf tales: the nobleman is betrayed by his wife (or step-mother) and stuck in wolf form for a length of time until he manages--while mute--to convince a king or other nobleman that he is indeed a transformed man. Marie stands out, in part, for acknowledging two types of werewolf--she calls them garwaf (alt. garwulf or garwolf) and bisclavret, the blood-thirsty monster and courtly sympathetic werewolf respectively. Hanning and Ferrante provide a brief (three page) context and interpretation of the tale.

de France, Marie. "Yonec." The Lais of Marie de France. Trans. Robert Hanning & Joan Ferrante. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2002. 137-154.

"Yonec" is an easily recognizable tale as it has many characteristics in common with "Rapunzel." A young woman is locked in a tower (in this case by her jealous older husband) and is visited by a young suitor. In this case, the suitor manages to reach the tower room by turning into a hawk. Later elements of the lai imply that he is either fae or an hallucination on the part of the young woman. This is also an origin/supernatural birth tale in that the title character is the child of the young wife and her mysterious hawk-man suitor. As with "Bisclavret," Hanning and Ferrante provide a brief context and interpretation of the tale.

Introductions

2008-07-18T20:57:00.000-07:00

For the last couple years, I have been conducting a wide-ranging dissertation on werewolves in literature. This project led me to the desire to create an annotated bibliography of all the pieces of shape-shifter literature and secondary material I can get my hands on. So, that's what this blog will be. For the time being, I'll limit it to print sources - no music, movies, or TV. I will attempt to provide bibliographic (citation) information where possible for the edition/translation that I most recently accessed. And this will be somewhat informal in tone.

I will attempt to keep everything organized using labels. Therefore, the following will be my system:

Type of Work
Primary - an original document such as a story, trial record, or historical account
Secondary - a document discussing other documents such as an academic book or essay

Time Period (for primary sources)
Ancient - everything before Greece
Classical - the Graeco-Roman period (through the fall of Rome)
Medieval - fall of Rome to about 1350 (give or take a year or three)
Renaissance - 1350 to 1699 (give or take a year of three)
X-Century - anything I have a rough date on

Genre
Academic Book - a book from an academic press/scholar
Anthology - a collection of short fiction or non-fiction
Article - a short work published in a journal/magazine
Book Chapter - a short work published in an anthology
Non-Academic Book - a book from a non-academic press/scholar
Novel - a long work of fiction (appears on its own)
Play - dramatic work (stage)
Short Story - a work of fiction appearing in a magazine or anthology
Verse - poetry or pre-novel fiction

Language (Original, currently only four)
English - Middle, Old, Elizabethan, or Modern
French
Latin
German

Constructive comments and suggestions of additional sources are very welcome.